Nuclear Fusion
Alongside antimatter thrust, 3d-print manufacturing technology, computation systems, and a number of others, nuclear fusion reactor technology stands as perhaps the most integral of these cornerstone technologies, the ones that have built the interstellar civilization of modern day. It posesses two valuable traits; a myriad of uses and incredible efficiency in those uses, especially power generation and thruster systems, which are easily the most important uses. As such, it is one of the few wholly universal features of human space, being used in a very large amount of things, from infrastructure and vehicles to weapons and starships.
The most common MCF designs of reactor are toroidal in shape, such as the Tokamak or Stellarator designs, though innovations in the semi-triple-helix Pyörylä design from the 2770s are seeing all the more use outside the Core Worlds by the day. Electromagnetic fields are generated in specific patterns to keep the plasma in the center of a structure, as the heat will destroy the reactor on contact. Due to the heat, the plasma and entire reactor chamber must also be kept in an extremely clean vaccuum, to reduce heat transfer to only relatively inefficient radiation. Still, the reactor needs to be cooled, significantly, and so any reactor system will have a coolant system as well, by necessity. Many reactor designs (especially the inertial confinement designs) utilize this to generate power, though the scales MCF is used in often forbid that.
The main benefit of these systems is the miniaturizeability, which stems from three factors. For one, electromagnetic field projection and insulation are very developed fields, mostly due to the prevalence of this method. This can be seen in not just fusion technologies, but also the existence of hardened plasma, mass drivers, or even various antimatter-related pieces of technology. This has resulted in it being useable at very small scales, ones measured in centimeters. Another factor is that of energy extraction. The other method relies on gas turbines to generate power, yet many methods of MCF allow for direct production of electricity from the fusion reactions themselves. This sidesteps the need for said turbines, which are considerably less scaleable. In addition, it requires far less frequent maintenance, and needs no outside supply besides fuel. The third factor, an issue still faced by ICF reactors, is that of radiation. Deuterium-Helium-3 fusion is aneutronic, and neutrons have a property of inducing radioactivity in materials they collide with. The lack of these neutrons naturally removes, or at least greatly reduces, this issue.
the science
The architecture of the reactor chamber itself is rather simple. The hohlraum, with its fuel inside, it held in the center of the room, and several meters from it, are the walls. These walls are made of strong, heat-resistant materials, most often ceramic plating covering C-I-Alloy. The walls are heavily cooled via various fluids, most often water (liquid or gas), though other conductive materials are used in this role. These inrease in temperature while cooling the chamber walls, and are used to turn turbines and generate electricity the old reliable way. However, the most important facilities involved in the process are substantial. Where a MCF reactor is almost entirely just the chamber and gas ventilation systems, an ICF reactor also has hohlraum production and insertion mechanisms, as well as the laser arrays. Both are complex and large pieces of machinery, which demand appreciable effort to maintain.
The advantages in ICF are especially evident on large scales. In the context of a city or large space ship or habitat, the space and maintenance demanded by auxiliary systems are not a significant issue. In addition, it is simply more efficient than MCF, and easier to scale up or down to suit growing or decreasing needs as necessary. Tritium is also far easier to acquire than helium-3 (especially since it is a common precursor to helium-3 manufacture), making fuel cheaper, even more so than the dirt cheap fuel it already is. Maintenance of an ICF reactor is simpler, although larger-scale, than MCF reactors, which often need to be broken apart entirely to be repaired. As both an ICF reactor and a wider reactor complex are very modular and large, they are far easier to preform maintenance on, as one does not need nanomachines or other clever solutions for small-scale repairs. A major complication, though not one consitent maintenance cannot fix, is radiation. Deuterium-tritium fusion produces high-energy neutrons, which unfortunately have the properly of inducing radiation within the walls of the reactor chamber. This is a minor issue, but it is a consideration. Another issue is that they require stability, hence why they are best used on either planets or large space-based constructions.
the science
MCF most often uses the deuterium-helium-3 method of fusion. These gases are often supplied from separate sources, and cannot be produced in the mechanical systems that use the reactor, as they are fairly complex. While the gases are plentiful and extremely cheap to manufacture, they are still a logistical consideration. A partial exception to this are the very smallest reactors, such as those found in heavy powered suit systems or synthetics. In this case, the amount of deuterium is so trivially small it can be directly siphoned from traces in a given atmosphere. Helium-3 must be separately acquired, however, though it, too, is needed here in such small quantities that a container of a few litres' worth is enough for months or even a year.
For ICF, deuterium-tritium is the method used. Unlike MCF reactors, the gas cannot be directly supplied, and is instead suspended inside the hohlraum, in a small, near-perfect sphere. These must be produced and placed inside the hohlraum, and that hohlraum transported into the reactor chamber with extreme precision, rapidly and for days or weeks on end. After a few weeks, reactors are often shut down for maintenance, supplemented by either the other reactors of the plant or battery arrays.
Deuterium, or Hydrogen-2, is an isotope of hydrogen with an extra neutron, atomically stable. Much like protium (Hydrogen-1), it is colourless, flavourless, transparent and, in room temperature, a gas. Deuterium is found in nature, and is reasonably abundant, composing every 2/10000 hydrogen atoms.
the science
Tritium, or Hydrogen-3, is another isotope of hydrogen with two extra neutrons, atomically unstable (half-life 12.3 years). It has the same chemical properties as deuterium, but is notable unstable and so radioactive. The radiation is not particularly dangerous, so has little bearing on the logistics of it. Tritium is not generally found in nature due to its instability, but is often manufactured by fission plants, one of the rare modern uses of the technology.
the science
Helium-3 is a stable isotope of helium. It has one less neutrons than the most common isotope, Helium-4. It is similar to hydrogen in properties; odorless, colourless, transparent, lighter-than-air, so on. In classical physics, it behaves nearly identically to 4He, but there are differences on the atomic level which are valuable for fusion. The most common source of 3He is from gas giants, but it can be produced primarily via tritium decay. As tritium is very accessible, this is common.
the science
The smallest ICF reactors are commonly aboard the largest orbital craft, those of several hundred meters in length, as smaller ships are too unstable for the precision needed, although exceptions exist. ICF reactors are generally far more demanding on logistical supply lines than MCF, but for large, established settlements or habitats or the like, as the fuel can be easily transported or, for starships, acquired. The demands of the hohlraum are less easy, hence the need for supply lines. Storage of said resources are no issue for a city-based power plant, and most complex equipment for repairs and maintenance are similarly available.
An ICF reactor produces power via turning turbines connected to generators. As the reaction occurs, the protective walls are blasted with energy in charged particles, which heat them up. This heat is siphoned away by cooling liquids or gases, which are cycled to turbines. Sometimes, they are cycled back to reactor, and sometimes not. Reactors utilizing steam often let them out whereas other gases often cycle back, as they tend to be somewhat toxic or dangerous in general. Liquid-based approaches are more common in space-based systems, especially spaceships, whereas gas-based systems rely more on gravity and so are found on planets and sometimes on habitats. These systems tend to take up as much space as the reactors themselves, so further restrict ICF reactors to larger scales.
Another important use is in smaller yet mechanical systems; notably synthetics, independent robots, and extended-use powered suits, such as HAST suits or many exoskeleton chasses. In these cases, fuel considerations are nearly trivial. The reactors are small enough that the necessary deuterium can be directly siphoned from traces in the atmosphere, and the amount of helium-3 necessary is so minimal that the equipment only needs that can be built-in that last for months or even years.
While one can extract energy via turbines, this is impractical on most scales where MCF is used. Instead, direct energy conversion systems exist. These most commonly utilize magnetohydrodynamics, as the product of deuterium-helium-3 fusion includes lone protons, which travel at very high velocities. These protons are funneled from the reactor chamber into a chute, and then into a cavity where the protons generate microwaves, which are converted into voltage via induction-based systems. This system is very complex and extremely difficult to repair while in whatever uses it, so repairs are often made by completely extracting them.
The reactor is fed more fuel, the fuel undergoes fusion as in a power-generating reactor, and the amount and temperature of the plasma rises. This excess is then magnetically funneled out of the reactor, and into a thruster nozzle. The nozzle is the same core design as in chemical thrusters, but the heat involved requires it to be both far more intensely cooled (necessitating complex heat-management systems in a ship besides the ones already necessary for other functions) and magnetically separated.
As thruster systems go, fusion thrusters are by far the best for most ships. The sheer cost-efficiency of them is unmatched, they are suitably powerful for even cross-system interplanetary travel, and they share the same fuel source fusion reactors do, making fuel storage simpler and refueling trivial. They are also reasonably safe, both in terms of stability under stress (something antimatter thrusters cannot claim) and radioactivity (in contrast to the ancient fission drive), though being a rocket engine, they still produce immense heat. In fact, the thruster plume of fusion engines can reach kilometers behind the ship, remaining hot enough to vapourize steel all that distance. As such, chemical thrusters are still the norm for up-close manouvering.
Plasma weapons are a similar application to thrusters, effectively being a partial fusion reactor pushing plasma out of a nozzle. In this case however, certain shapes and magnetic patterns in the nozzle allow the ejected plasma to remain contiguous for a time. This allows it to be used at range efficiently, and makes for a very powerful weapon, though one that overheats easily and is difficult to maintan, as those magnetic patterns are very specific. In small scales like infantry-portable plasma cannons, cases where the entire nozzle system melts down are not unheard of.
Another similar application is that of particle beams, a derivative technology of both plasma weapons and mass drivers. In essence, it is a big barrel wherein plasma from a fusion reactor is funneled and accelerated to substantial velocity continuously for a time. This results in a medium-range, supremely powerful weapon, and one that can potentially cut a smaller target clean in half.
See: plasma weapons
see relevant article
The development history of nuclear fusion reactors especially was very difficult and slow. From the outset, the extreme conditions involved posed significant issues for experiments, much less long-term operation. Numerous other issues emerged as well, such as the maintenance of the reactor chamber itself and the form and efficiency of the magnetic field generation process. However, the worst of them all was simple efficiency. For fusion to be viable, particularly as a power source, it would need to self-sufficient; generating more energy from the reactions than goes into maintaining the plasma at a temperature enough for fusion. This was the major hurdle to overcome, and by 2050, it was finally done. Improvements in superconductor technology as well as the now-established space industry allowed for better and more efficient methods of fusion, far cheaper, and so, the first self-sufficient ICF reactor test was conducted, successfully, in 2048. MCF also achieved this in 2052.
It now stands as perhaps the most important technology in use in human space, or even through all of human history, though that latter one is a contentious claim. Many would disagree, citing perhaps computers or the steam engine, rocketry or calculus, or even, if pedantic enough, fire. Still, the value of fusion is impossible to overstate. The infrastructure of human space can exist because of it, and it is one of those rare truly universal pieces of technology, found absolutely everywhere from the Core Worlds to the most rimward of fronties stations.
Over the centuries since the 21st, the technology has been adjusted and improved, drastically so. The extreme development of space infrastructure as well as improved refining technologies allowed for far easier fuel acquisition, and manufacturing systems becoming more accessible and capable permitted the reactors' use in far more situations, from spacecraft (further pushing along that industry in a feedback loop-esque case) to even the most isolated of industries and locales. Mechanical improvements, too, were made. Most were minor adjustments and slight improvements in magnetic field projection, energy exctraction, fuel cycling, or heat management, that simply added up over the centuries. Of note are the significant leaps in these; such as the fully magnetically isolated MCF reactor in 2109, integral for miniaturized reactors, the 2453 ICF neutron collection system, for reduced radiation emission, the 2621 plasma cycling mechanism, that nearly halved the requisite fuel, or the 2772 Pyörylä design, that drastically improved MCF reactor efficiency and repairability.
Technical Details
Nuclear fusion is the process of, as per the name, atomic particles fusing together, releasing energy, in some form or another. This requires a significant intial investment of energy, but, with elements lighter than nickel-62, will produce more energy than is used, generally. Lighter elements tend to be more easily fusible, especially , especially those of hydrogen. Thus, most fusion requires either high pressure or temperature. Stars make do with immense pressure via gravity, but humans have to go the other way and prioritize temperature. This is achieved by a number of methods, primarily magnetic confinement of plasma heated via electric or magnetic processes, or via lasers or sometimes even matter-antimatter annihilation. Currently, in the late 29th, there are two primary methods widely in use; magnetic and inertial confinement, though a number of minor ones exist in specialist purposes and roles.Magnetic Confinement
Of the two main methods, magnetic confinement fusion (hereafter referred to as MCF) is the most famous and noticeable in everyday life. It is the go-to for small-scale power generation, as it can be scaled to very small levels. The crux of this method is that of electromagnetic confinement of superheated plasma, wherein hydrogen is fused into heavier elements, releasing energy. This plasma is composed primarily of hydrogen, largely Hydrogen-1, though is partly relevant isotopes, and is heated to very high temperatures, in the hundreds of millions of degrees. This being the case, the actual mass of the plasma inside in miniscule in comparison to the size of the reactor. This plasma undergoes fusion due to the immense temperature, and releases particles, such as helium isotopes or single neutrons or protons; it depends on the isotopes used. Most commonly, Deuterium-Helium-3 fusion is the preferred method, reducing strain on the housing and eliminating the eventual radioactivity of the reactor due to the aneutronic nature, as well as the generation of charged particles.The most common MCF designs of reactor are toroidal in shape, such as the Tokamak or Stellarator designs, though innovations in the semi-triple-helix Pyörylä design from the 2770s are seeing all the more use outside the Core Worlds by the day. Electromagnetic fields are generated in specific patterns to keep the plasma in the center of a structure, as the heat will destroy the reactor on contact. Due to the heat, the plasma and entire reactor chamber must also be kept in an extremely clean vaccuum, to reduce heat transfer to only relatively inefficient radiation. Still, the reactor needs to be cooled, significantly, and so any reactor system will have a coolant system as well, by necessity. Many reactor designs (especially the inertial confinement designs) utilize this to generate power, though the scales MCF is used in often forbid that.
The main benefit of these systems is the miniaturizeability, which stems from three factors. For one, electromagnetic field projection and insulation are very developed fields, mostly due to the prevalence of this method. This can be seen in not just fusion technologies, but also the existence of hardened plasma, mass drivers, or even various antimatter-related pieces of technology. This has resulted in it being useable at very small scales, ones measured in centimeters. Another factor is that of energy extraction. The other method relies on gas turbines to generate power, yet many methods of MCF allow for direct production of electricity from the fusion reactions themselves. This sidesteps the need for said turbines, which are considerably less scaleable. In addition, it requires far less frequent maintenance, and needs no outside supply besides fuel. The third factor, an issue still faced by ICF reactors, is that of radiation. Deuterium-Helium-3 fusion is aneutronic, and neutrons have a property of inducing radioactivity in materials they collide with. The lack of these neutrons naturally removes, or at least greatly reduces, this issue.
the science
to be written someday during WE, probably
to be written someday during WE, probably
Inertial Confinement
Inertial confinement fusion (ICF), and specifically the indirect drive system, is the primary method for large-scale power generation, particularly city-scale infrastructure and large spaceships. It utilizes primarily deuterium-tritium fusion. Compared to MCF, it has the potential for far more powerful systems, though it also requires far larger machinery. The method still relies on nuclear fusion of superheated gas to generate energy, specifically deuterium-tritium fusion, but goes about it differently than MCF does. In ICF, a small cylinder (in the realm of millimeters), a hohlraum, containing an even smaller pellet of the gas, is inserted into a chamber, where is it bombarded by tens of lasers from specific angles, rapidly heating up the pellet inside to fusion temperatures. For a mere few nanoseconds, the pellet's own inertia contains the heat inside itself, initation fusion, before the pellet and the hohlraum are instantly destroyed and large quantities of energy, in the form of energetic particles, for Deut.-Trit. fusion, a helium atom and a neutron. This process is repeated tens, sometimes hundreds, of times a second, rapidly inserting and destroying a new hohlraum. Much like with antimatter reactor modules, a proper reactor complex will have tens of these modular reactors.The architecture of the reactor chamber itself is rather simple. The hohlraum, with its fuel inside, it held in the center of the room, and several meters from it, are the walls. These walls are made of strong, heat-resistant materials, most often ceramic plating covering C-I-Alloy. The walls are heavily cooled via various fluids, most often water (liquid or gas), though other conductive materials are used in this role. These inrease in temperature while cooling the chamber walls, and are used to turn turbines and generate electricity the old reliable way. However, the most important facilities involved in the process are substantial. Where a MCF reactor is almost entirely just the chamber and gas ventilation systems, an ICF reactor also has hohlraum production and insertion mechanisms, as well as the laser arrays. Both are complex and large pieces of machinery, which demand appreciable effort to maintain.
The advantages in ICF are especially evident on large scales. In the context of a city or large space ship or habitat, the space and maintenance demanded by auxiliary systems are not a significant issue. In addition, it is simply more efficient than MCF, and easier to scale up or down to suit growing or decreasing needs as necessary. Tritium is also far easier to acquire than helium-3 (especially since it is a common precursor to helium-3 manufacture), making fuel cheaper, even more so than the dirt cheap fuel it already is. Maintenance of an ICF reactor is simpler, although larger-scale, than MCF reactors, which often need to be broken apart entirely to be repaired. As both an ICF reactor and a wider reactor complex are very modular and large, they are far easier to preform maintenance on, as one does not need nanomachines or other clever solutions for small-scale repairs. A major complication, though not one consitent maintenance cannot fix, is radiation. Deuterium-tritium fusion produces high-energy neutrons, which unfortunately have the properly of inducing radiation within the walls of the reactor chamber. This is a minor issue, but it is a consideration. Another issue is that they require stability, hence why they are best used on either planets or large space-based constructions.
the science
TBW
TBW
Fuel
The primary fuel for fusion is, and always has been, the lightest of elements; hydrogen and helium. Isotopes thereof, specifically, since the inherent instability of these non-neutral nuclides (tooltip:explain) is integral for nuclear fusion. While the two methods consume slightly different types of fuel, they are broadly similar.MCF most often uses the deuterium-helium-3 method of fusion. These gases are often supplied from separate sources, and cannot be produced in the mechanical systems that use the reactor, as they are fairly complex. While the gases are plentiful and extremely cheap to manufacture, they are still a logistical consideration. A partial exception to this are the very smallest reactors, such as those found in heavy powered suit systems or synthetics. In this case, the amount of deuterium is so trivially small it can be directly siphoned from traces in a given atmosphere. Helium-3 must be separately acquired, however, though it, too, is needed here in such small quantities that a container of a few litres' worth is enough for months or even a year.
For ICF, deuterium-tritium is the method used. Unlike MCF reactors, the gas cannot be directly supplied, and is instead suspended inside the hohlraum, in a small, near-perfect sphere. These must be produced and placed inside the hohlraum, and that hohlraum transported into the reactor chamber with extreme precision, rapidly and for days or weeks on end. After a few weeks, reactors are often shut down for maintenance, supplemented by either the other reactors of the plant or battery arrays.
Deuterium, or Hydrogen-2, is an isotope of hydrogen with an extra neutron, atomically stable. Much like protium (Hydrogen-1), it is colourless, flavourless, transparent and, in room temperature, a gas. Deuterium is found in nature, and is reasonably abundant, composing every 2/10000 hydrogen atoms.
the science
TBW
TBW
Tritium, or Hydrogen-3, is another isotope of hydrogen with two extra neutrons, atomically unstable (half-life 12.3 years). It has the same chemical properties as deuterium, but is notable unstable and so radioactive. The radiation is not particularly dangerous, so has little bearing on the logistics of it. Tritium is not generally found in nature due to its instability, but is often manufactured by fission plants, one of the rare modern uses of the technology.
the science
TBW
TBW
Helium-3 is a stable isotope of helium. It has one less neutrons than the most common isotope, Helium-4. It is similar to hydrogen in properties; odorless, colourless, transparent, lighter-than-air, so on. In classical physics, it behaves nearly identically to 4He, but there are differences on the atomic level which are valuable for fusion. The most common source of 3He is from gas giants, but it can be produced primarily via tritium decay. As tritium is very accessible, this is common.
the science
TBW
TBW
Power Generation
The primary use for fusion technology is power generation. Clean energy, with abundant and easy fuel, producing nearly unmatched levels of power. The cost-efficiency of nuclear fusion is simply incontestible. Both MCF and ICF are used for this, but due to their differences, they have very different applications.Large-Scale
ICF is the go-to method for large-scale power generation, primarily large power grids like those of cities or large space constructions like habitats and ships. It is standard across all of human space, from all but the largest metropoli of the Earth to backwater frontiers like Afkaschein and Ochtotne Prime, ultimately similar and recognizeable everywhere. When considering raw production, the largest of these are altogether fairly small, the full power plants being a few kilometers across, which is enough to power several cities of millions. Few cases need more power, in which cases antimatter power plants are often used for superior energy density.The smallest ICF reactors are commonly aboard the largest orbital craft, those of several hundred meters in length, as smaller ships are too unstable for the precision needed, although exceptions exist. ICF reactors are generally far more demanding on logistical supply lines than MCF, but for large, established settlements or habitats or the like, as the fuel can be easily transported or, for starships, acquired. The demands of the hohlraum are less easy, hence the need for supply lines. Storage of said resources are no issue for a city-based power plant, and most complex equipment for repairs and maintenance are similarly available.
An ICF reactor produces power via turning turbines connected to generators. As the reaction occurs, the protective walls are blasted with energy in charged particles, which heat them up. This heat is siphoned away by cooling liquids or gases, which are cycled to turbines. Sometimes, they are cycled back to reactor, and sometimes not. Reactors utilizing steam often let them out whereas other gases often cycle back, as they tend to be somewhat toxic or dangerous in general. Liquid-based approaches are more common in space-based systems, especially spaceships, whereas gas-based systems rely more on gravity and so are found on planets and sometimes on habitats. These systems tend to take up as much space as the reactors themselves, so further restrict ICF reactors to larger scales.
Small-Scale
MCF reactors dominate smaller machinery, in contrast. From most orbital craft to even compact generators, they are used on scales where an ICF would either face too much instability or take up too much space, and demand too much maintenance. The low-maintenance aspect is especially valuable in these small scales, as maintenance is very occasional and complete, where ICF reactors must be consistently monitored. This makes it ideal for small scales, and they find use especially in vehicles of all sorts. Everything from orbital craft, surface-to-orbit-to-surface shuttles, cars, armoured vehicles, planes, trains, and specialist tools all commonly use either batteries or MCF reactors. Of these, a reactor is considerably more efficient as a power source for long-term operation.Another important use is in smaller yet mechanical systems; notably synthetics, independent robots, and extended-use powered suits, such as HAST suits or many exoskeleton chasses. In these cases, fuel considerations are nearly trivial. The reactors are small enough that the necessary deuterium can be directly siphoned from traces in the atmosphere, and the amount of helium-3 necessary is so minimal that the equipment only needs that can be built-in that last for months or even years.
While one can extract energy via turbines, this is impractical on most scales where MCF is used. Instead, direct energy conversion systems exist. These most commonly utilize magnetohydrodynamics, as the product of deuterium-helium-3 fusion includes lone protons, which travel at very high velocities. These protons are funneled from the reactor chamber into a chute, and then into a cavity where the protons generate microwaves, which are converted into voltage via induction-based systems. This system is very complex and extremely difficult to repair while in whatever uses it, so repairs are often made by completely extracting them.
Other Uses
Besides power generation, adaptations therof were also developed after the technology was finalized. Most notably, the industries of materials manufacture and spacecraft gained many a new tool, and spaceflight especially was practically revolutionized again from the development of fusion-based thrusters, and, as always, weapons technology made great use of easy and understood nuclear fusion. Most of these applications simply come down to using the plasma itself to heat things, as that inherent property of it is always present by nature of the technology.Thrust
A conventional thruster, at its core, is a repeated explosion directed in a specific direction. This logic applies, in a sense, to fusion thrusters as well. Much like conventional chemical- or fission-based rockets, a the primary component of a fusion thruster is the nozzle, to which a partial nuclear fusion reactor is attached. This fusion reactor is far more powerful than a comparably scaled ship's reactor would be, and is not energy-self-sufficient in itself. It must therefore be powered by the ship's main reactors, though a ship needs those anyway for other purposes.The reactor is fed more fuel, the fuel undergoes fusion as in a power-generating reactor, and the amount and temperature of the plasma rises. This excess is then magnetically funneled out of the reactor, and into a thruster nozzle. The nozzle is the same core design as in chemical thrusters, but the heat involved requires it to be both far more intensely cooled (necessitating complex heat-management systems in a ship besides the ones already necessary for other functions) and magnetically separated.
As thruster systems go, fusion thrusters are by far the best for most ships. The sheer cost-efficiency of them is unmatched, they are suitably powerful for even cross-system interplanetary travel, and they share the same fuel source fusion reactors do, making fuel storage simpler and refueling trivial. They are also reasonably safe, both in terms of stability under stress (something antimatter thrusters cannot claim) and radioactivity (in contrast to the ancient fission drive), though being a rocket engine, they still produce immense heat. In fact, the thruster plume of fusion engines can reach kilometers behind the ship, remaining hot enough to vapourize steel all that distance. As such, chemical thrusters are still the norm for up-close manouvering.
Weapons
There are two main types of fusion weapons; fusion-based explosives, and plasma weapons. Of these, explosives have been used since the mid-20th century, though with a fissile element involved. In the 2060s, however, a proper pure fusion warhead was invented, though saw negligble use in the mutually-assured-destruction-filled era, until fusion miniaturization developed far enough. When the necessity for it did emerge again, this technology was applied for use in space combat, primarily for large ballistic missiles. In the mid-2100s, after reactor miniaturization had developed, it could also be used in smaller missiles, such as the micromissiles used by warships, and in certain planet-based cruise missile designs, though for ship combat, antimatter is still preferred due to the sheer size of a given target.Plasma weapons are a similar application to thrusters, effectively being a partial fusion reactor pushing plasma out of a nozzle. In this case however, certain shapes and magnetic patterns in the nozzle allow the ejected plasma to remain contiguous for a time. This allows it to be used at range efficiently, and makes for a very powerful weapon, though one that overheats easily and is difficult to maintan, as those magnetic patterns are very specific. In small scales like infantry-portable plasma cannons, cases where the entire nozzle system melts down are not unheard of.
Another similar application is that of particle beams, a derivative technology of both plasma weapons and mass drivers. In essence, it is a big barrel wherein plasma from a fusion reactor is funneled and accelerated to substantial velocity continuously for a time. This results in a medium-range, supremely powerful weapon, and one that can potentially cut a smaller target clean in half.
See: plasma weapons
Forging
By the very nature of nuclear fusion, the temperatures involved are something beyond hot. As with plasma weapons, this can be used very efficiently to heat stuff up, and a multitude of industrial production processes depend on that. It is an imprecise process, all things considered, and other methods can produce necessary temperatures with higher precision, but as with everything fusion, the sheer cost-efficiency is invaluable. And so, it is used for many more bulk applications, especially in refinery systems.see relevant article
History
Experiments relating to nuclear fusion have been ongoing sICFe the early 20th century. Discovered around the same time as nuclear fission, the far more achievable and immediately relevant form of nuclear energy, it was developed and researched for over a century. Steady, but slow and incremental progress over the decades eventually lead to a breakthrough in 2046, allowing for large-scale use and adoption in 2050. While this lead to a signicant amount of political and societal instability for a large amount of time, it was still an entirely positive development. Now established to function as needed, it was adapted to many other previously theoretical, thoroughly studied applications, like spaceflight, industry, or weapons.The development history of nuclear fusion reactors especially was very difficult and slow. From the outset, the extreme conditions involved posed significant issues for experiments, much less long-term operation. Numerous other issues emerged as well, such as the maintenance of the reactor chamber itself and the form and efficiency of the magnetic field generation process. However, the worst of them all was simple efficiency. For fusion to be viable, particularly as a power source, it would need to self-sufficient; generating more energy from the reactions than goes into maintaining the plasma at a temperature enough for fusion. This was the major hurdle to overcome, and by 2050, it was finally done. Improvements in superconductor technology as well as the now-established space industry allowed for better and more efficient methods of fusion, far cheaper, and so, the first self-sufficient ICF reactor test was conducted, successfully, in 2048. MCF also achieved this in 2052.
Societal Impact
To say that the impact of large-scale use of nuclear fusion was revolutionary is the understatement of the millenium. Finally functional by 2050, access to such easy, clean, and powerful energy was very important to a number of industries, and the sudden lack of reliance on fossil fuels and other politically tied resources for energy upset the political landscape greatly, in good and bad. The space industry, however, was suddenly in a significant upward direction, and rather soon, permanent settlement would be established on Luna, Mars, and Earth's orbit. From here, it would become an integral part of infrastructure, being the primary power generation method in everything all the way to today, in the 29th century. While other technologies might have surplanted it in certain sectors, like antimatter in very large-scale power generation and high-density battery systems in smaller situations, it remains a mainstay in not only power, but also spaceflight, weapons, materials manufacturing, and research.It now stands as perhaps the most important technology in use in human space, or even through all of human history, though that latter one is a contentious claim. Many would disagree, citing perhaps computers or the steam engine, rocketry or calculus, or even, if pedantic enough, fire. Still, the value of fusion is impossible to overstate. The infrastructure of human space can exist because of it, and it is one of those rare truly universal pieces of technology, found absolutely everywhere from the Core Worlds to the most rimward of fronties stations.
Over the centuries since the 21st, the technology has been adjusted and improved, drastically so. The extreme development of space infrastructure as well as improved refining technologies allowed for far easier fuel acquisition, and manufacturing systems becoming more accessible and capable permitted the reactors' use in far more situations, from spacecraft (further pushing along that industry in a feedback loop-esque case) to even the most isolated of industries and locales. Mechanical improvements, too, were made. Most were minor adjustments and slight improvements in magnetic field projection, energy exctraction, fuel cycling, or heat management, that simply added up over the centuries. Of note are the significant leaps in these; such as the fully magnetically isolated MCF reactor in 2109, integral for miniaturized reactors, the 2453 ICF neutron collection system, for reduced radiation emission, the 2621 plasma cycling mechanism, that nearly halved the requisite fuel, or the 2772 Pyörylä design, that drastically improved MCF reactor efficiency and repairability.
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