Monopolium

Magnetic monopoles are essential to all gravity control technologies invented and developed in the Tau Ceti star system. An "atom" of a central magnetic monopole with captured protons and electrons is called monopolium (pronounced: mon-o-po-li-um).

Their uses range from providing one-g conditions in space colonies and spacecraft, to gravitational catapults for launching equipment and personnel into orbit, and to the creation of traversable wormholes for rapid space travel. In addition to gravity control technologies, the discovery of magnetic monopoles led to the emergence of many new high powered machines, in virtue of portable room temperature fusion power generation, using ³He nuclei.

The origin of the monopolium ore in the Tau Ceti star system remains a matter of debate. This is complicated by the fact that magnetic monopoles have not only been observed to exist only within the Tau Ceti system, but the arrival of an astronomical quantity of monopoles took place after the various planets in that system had already formed (given how abundant monopoles are in the crusts of those planets in contrast to deeper layers).

The physics of these monopoles has been difficult to adequately account for, owing in large part to a monopole's extremely small size (10^-32 m, near the Planck scale) compared to all other known particles (the top quark at 10^-19 m). While monopoles can be free particles, it is very difficult to manipulate them when they are no longer part of a monopolium atom. The failed predictions of Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) regarding monopole properties (e.g., mass larger than predicted, no catalysis of proton decay) further hampers theoretical work on monopoles.

Monopolium Technologies

Nuclear Fusion Catalyzation

If two ³He nuclei approach too close to a magnetic monopole, they will overcome their Coulomb repulsion and fuse at room temperature, outgassing only alpha particles and protons. Thus, aneutronic and aphotonic cold fusion becomes possible with magnetic monopoles. Since the outgassed charged particles can induce electric currents to power equipment, this type of fusion technology is extremely energy efficient (>90%). The same technology can be used on a much grander scale for clean nuclear fusion rocketry, with an exhaust velocity of 6.8% of lightspeed. Monopoles are not expended or exhausted by this process, however only nuclei with an odd number of nucleons respond to a monopole's magnetic field, hence only they can undergo fusion catalyzation.

No Nucleon Decay

Unlike Grand Unified or GUT magnetic monopoles, which in virtue of possessing a magnetic core where the strong and electroweak interactions are unified, the monopoles found thus far in nature do not catalyze proton or neutron decay. This is actually good: since the cross-section of nucleon decay catalysis by a GUT monopole is the same as the range of the strong force, any captured nuclei would undergo nucleon decay and atomic monopolium would not exist.

Graviton Technologies

With the development of quantum gravity in the study of high-energy graviton physics in the Tau Ceti star system, various technologies emerged which could exploit the nonlinear features of gravity on a small scale, in virtue of high-energy gravitons produced by magnetic monopoles. Unlike the paragravity catapult envisioned by Robert L. Forward in 1963, high-energy gravitons allow for the creation of handheld paragravity devices. The list below covers the most notable of these technologies.

Paragravity

Having 524 µg/m³ of monopoles allows one to generate a sufficient amount of high-energy gravitons to duplicate a comfortable one-g environment, for use in either microgravity environments (spaceships) or celestial environments (colonial arcologies on moons and planets). Paragravity is essential for most habitation beyond Earth, since the human body has a very small window of tolerance regarding gravity, for long-term health. Since such a small amount is required for Earth-like gravity generation, personal and vehicle paragravity belts are common. The small range of such devices relative to that of Earth's radius and the density of the monopolium compared to that of Earth's density helps to reduce the bulk quantity of monopolium required (by 24 orders of magnitude), especially since the high density increases the presence of nonlinear interactions between gravitons. However, all such devices obey conservation of momentum, and thus cannot be used to generate free kinetic energy.

Stressor Beams

An extension of paragravity technology is the production of a beam of high-energy gravitons that induces intense oscillations in the curvature of spacetime. That is, a beam that induces gravitational stress on anything entering it. Such high frequency spacetime curvature oscillations (near the Planck scale) can induce severe damage to objects (much like acoustic vibrations), and every object is affected equally in virtue of the equivalence principle of General Relativity (which quantum gravity upholds). Such beams drop off at 1/r², thus with a beam divergence in kind with that of flashlights. There is no known method by which to generate a gravitational analogue of a laser at this time. Since gravity is nonlinear, stressor beams do interact with each other, unlike the linear dynamics of electromagnetic fields.

Traversable Wormholes

Main Article: Traversable Wormholes

With the acquisition of gravity control technologies by using magnetic monopoles from the Tau Ceti star system, traversable wormholes became a reality. That is, devices capable of conveying persons, equipment, and information across interplanetary distances, seeming to travel faster-than-light (FTL), even though nothing is locally moving FTL. Unfortunately, warp drives are currently impossible and will remain that way for the foreseeable future.

Wormhole generators create wormholes on the spot, forming a wormhole connecting itself to another wormhole generator. That is, wormholes can only be formed between active generators. If a location doesn't want to form a wormhole with someone, they can block that mode of access.

Artificial wormholes are created and maintained through a careful balancing act between opposing tendencies of gravity. First, there is the self-attractive nature of classical gravity, trying to close off any wormhole (and form singularities in black holes). This is countered by a stronger negative pressure from the quantum mechanical nature of gravity (which prevents the formation of singularities), keeping the wormhole taut and traversable.

Physics of Monopolium

The unexpected discovery of monopolium in the Tau Ceti star system accelerated both technology and science. However, due to various experimental constraints and the failed predictions by GUTs regarding monopole properties, much of the fundamental physics of monopoles remains conjecture at this time. Since monopolium ore is plentiful in the Tau Ceti system, at least the bulk properties of monopolium are well established.

Physics Models of Monopoles

Generally, magnetic monopoles are unlike elementary particles (e.g., electrons): monopoles are not excitations of a "monopole" quantum field. Rather, they are topological solitons, where magnetic fields have become "twisted" in such a way that no deformation can bring them out of their twisted state. Due to conservation of both topological and magnetic charges, monopoles do not undergo decay: they are stable across astronomical timespans. The only way to destroy a monopole is for it to collide with another monopole of opposite charge (i.e., north—south collision).

Further details depend heavily on which theory one subscribes to below.

Grand Unified Theories

In GUTs, monopoles have a core region where a higher symmetry between fundamental forces remains compared to the rest of the universe. So, a GUT-scale magnetic monopole has a core region where the strong force and electroweak forces are still unified. So during the Big Bang when the strong force split off from the electroweak force, the universe underwent a "phase transition" similar to how water becomes ice. Magnetic monopoles and cosmic strings are defects in the "freezing out" of the universe (e.g., "cracks" in the "ice"). However, while monopoles are stable across astronomical timescales, cosmic strings can decay into magnetic monopoles and gravitational radiation when "cut" by either another cosmic string or by itself.

GUTs predicted that there was at least one scale of monopoles, corresponding to a first-order symmetry breaking of the Grand Unified Scale at M_X ≈ 10¹⁶ GeV. This is far above and earlier than the Electroweak Scale, a second-order symmetry breaking event, where M_W ≈ 10² GeV. Some more complicated GUTs predicted further scales between the GUT and electroweak scales where monopoles would emerge as well, such as SO(10) models. What's important is that no GUT predicts any monopoles above the GUT scale, thus no monopole should have a Planck scale mass (M_P ≈ 1.22 × 10¹⁹ GeV or 22 micrograms).

It is important to note that all monopoles have a rather complex structure outside of the magnetic core. Within a radius 10^-18 m, magnetic charges are anti-screened or vanish and monopoles enter into bound states with one another, as a consequence of the Higgs Field post-electroweak symmetry breaking (see the diagram below of a monopole's structure). Beyond a radius of about 10^-13 m monopoles behave like elementary particles: mere magnetic monopoles.

There are numerous failed predictions from GUTs in regard to magnetic monopoles. While the size is right (10^-32 m), this should correspond to a mass of 10¹⁸ GeV. Yet, all magnetic monopoles have been measured to have Planck mass (10¹⁹ GeV). Perhaps worse is the failed prediction of proton decay in the presence of a monopole. Due to the Rubakov-Callan effect, the cross section for monopole-catalyzed nucleon decay is large enough to induce decay of the protons in atomic monopolium. Yet, this clearly does not happen. Proton decay was a strong point of GUTs, that it was part of the greater framework which would explain why the Big Bang produced more matter than antimatter. Finally, no X and Y bosons (carriers of the Grand Unified Force) have been detected in monopole / antimonopole annihilations.

Kaluza-Klein Theories

Like in GUTs, KK monopoles have a core region that is different from the outside world. Unlike most particles, which are much too large to make any use of the extremely small and compact fifth dimension (which unifies gravity and electromagnetism), KK monopoles are small enough that they are five-dimensional topological solitons. The source of the locked twisting of the magnetic field is the compact fifth dimension: the magnetic field lines can twist around the fifth dimension, resulting in monopoles with an astronomical lifespan (like GUT monopoles). The four-dimensional phenomenon of a magnetic monopole is a consequence of higher-dimensional geometry.

As a consequence, KK monopoles have a very different structure from GUT monopoles. The magnetic core has a structure analogous to GUT monopoles: the electromagnetic potential (A_µ) functions as a gauge group (i.e., graviphoton) alongside a scalar field (i.e., graviscalar or radion) that sets the size of the interactions (i.e., the radius of the fifth dimension). From the core to 10^-13 m, there are no significant structures, unlike a GUT monopole. Then at 10^-13 m, the size of the electron's Compton wavelength, is a screening of electric charges, a feature of every charged particle smaller than an electron's Compton wavelength. Beyond that, the monopole behaves as an elementary particle, a mere monopole.

KK theories have their own failures, some having absolutely nothing to do with monopoles. KK theories still treat gravity as a classical (i.e., non-quantum) phenomenon, and only combine the electromagnetic force with gravity. The weak and strong forces are ignored in original Kaluza-Klein theory (but can be added in six dimensional KK theories).

Specific to monopoles, KK theory predicts too large of a mass for a monopole, three Planck masses instead of the observed one Planck mass. Second, no graviphotons (i.e., massive photons) have been observed in monopole / antimonopole annihilations. KK theories generically predict a "tower" of graviphotons, with a mass equal to integer values (starting with n = 0 for the well-known massless photon) times Planck mass (m_γ = n × M_P). Finally, KK theories provide no mechanism for magnetic monopoles to appear in the Tau Ceti system after its planets had already formed.

Properties of Monopolium

Atomic Monopolium

In virtue of the dipole magnetic moment of elementary particles, some can couple with the magnetic charge of a monopole, and be captured into a bound state analogous to how atomic nuclei can capture electrons to form atoms. Unfortunately, unstable particles like neutrons are not held with sufficient binding energies by a magnetic monopole to make them no longer radioactive. A free neutron undergoes β^- decay releasing 782 keV, far more than the binding energy of 10.36 keV. Thus, remaining bound to a magnetic monopole is not energetically favorable for neutrons. Electrons (nor positrons) can be captured by a solitary magnetic monopole into bound states either. This is due to the Schrödinger equation correctly predicting that an electron or positron will always have a repulsive centrifugal force in the presence of magnetic charges (in other words: monopolium is a superinsulator).

Protons however are not only stable around monopoles but they are relatively immune to nuclear fusion catalyzation, since an early step of proton—proton fusion requires a rare intervention by the Weak Force (something a monopole cannot assist with). With a 1s shell binding energy to monopoles of 15.1 keV, monopolium can be extremely dense due to the 1s shell's radius of around 48 fermis. However, with the presence of protons at a nuclear distance from the monopole, electrons can be captured at energies such as what happens inside of a hydrogen or helium atom. Now, there is no 2s shell for protons bound to a monopole, since the net angular forces will be repulsive. Hence the maximum number of protons a monopole can capture is merely two, of opposite spin, to fill the proton's only s shell. More than two electrons can be bound to a monopole-proton system, with the whole system (monopole-protons-electrons) behaving as negatively charged ions.

Monopolium has two sets of spectral lines. While its electron lines are an exact duplicate of hydrogen or helium lines, its proton line (15.1 keV) is unique to monopolium across the known universe. This x-ray spectral line is not detectable through optical spectral analysis, only through x-ray stimulation or heating monopolium into a plasma state reveals the high-energy line of 15.1 keV.

As Ionizing Radiation

Magnetic monopoles are highly ionizing (i.e., can strip electrons from atoms, with those electrons producing X-rays as secondary radiation) if encountered as free particles. Thus, they can be quite dangerous for both biological and electronic entities.

Gravitational Radiation

Since known monopoles have a mass equal to Planck Mass, their excitations produce quantum gravitational effects. It was in the examination of magnetic monopoles that the graviton (the spin-2 boson, G, responsible for gravitational interactions) was finally discovered. Planck-scale monopoles possess a mutual gravitational interaction some 10⁴⁴ times stronger than the gravitational interaction between two electrons, and have an electromagnetic interaction 4692 times stronger than that between electrons. So, since the electromagnetic force is 10³⁷ times stronger than gravitation, the high energy gravitons produced by a system of magnetic monopoles end up being several times more potent than photons produced by that same system. These high frequency gravitons correspond to extremely strong disturbances in spacetime curvature. If monopoles were less massive by even a few orders of magnitude, the emission of photons would dominate and gravitons would remain unknown.

Since ordinary matter (protons, neutrons, and electrons) is very weakly coupled with the gravitational interaction, monopolium is much better suited for graviton detection devices. Since monopolium is involved with both gravitation and electromagnetism, conversions between the energies of those two fundamental interactions is accomplished in a practical manner with monopolium. That is, if a magnetic monopole is struck by a graviton, there is a good chance that a photon will be emitted, which can then be detected by ordinary matter.

Investigations into gravitons led to the discovery of not only a slew of quantum gravitational phenomena, but the specifics of the nonlinear nature of gravity in a quantum mechanical way. Some of these nonlinear quantum corrections includes the positing of paradoxical effects among high-energy gravitons: sometimes repulsive gravitational fields appear in highly warped spacetimes. Further research allowed scientists to no longer need various ad hoc corrections to the Einstein Field Equations, with a proper theory of quantum gravity in their possession.

Monopolium Ore

Bulk monopolium is never found in a pure state: it is usually intermixed with ferromagnetic elements like iron and nickel (usually all three mixed together). It is their magnetic properties which draws in magnetic monopoles from the interstellar medium. This is a negative feedback loop, for as the magnetized iron-nickel attracts more monopoles, any magnetic field is "poisoned" by those monopoles. Monopolium ore appears like any iron-nickel deposit, except that there is the presence of small translucent nodules, the more monopolium rich parts of the iron-nickel ore. Monopolium has a low plasma frequency, and so appears transparent when not mixed with iron-nickel material.

Since pure monopolium is a prerequisite for its technological use, melting monopolium ore is essential. Since the melting point of the various types of monopolium is well over that for all the elements in the periodic table, one can "drain off" the now liquid iron and nickel and be in possession of purified monopolium. Initially, the liberated monopolium exudes from the molten ore as microscopic dust particles, collected by a electromagnetic dust trap (usually coated with tungsten for its high melting point). However, since purified monopolium dust approaches the density of a neutron star (>10¹⁸ kg/m³), it is suspended as a gas in a magnetic bottle to reduce the density for transport.

Production of Monopolium

While relic magnetic monopoles from the Big Bang should exist, none have been found thus far. They have only been found within the crusts of the planets in the Tau Ceti star system, some 11.9 light-years away from Earth. Their origin remains a matter of speculation (see below).

Cosmic Strings

Cosmic strings are a proposed relic from the Big Bang, a topological defect or soliton like magnetic monopoles are. Magnetic monopoles can be thought of as zero-dimensional defects, and cosmic strings are one-dimensional defects: a very thin object (10^-32 m radius) under immense tension, potentially spanning the size of the observable universe. Their proposed mass density is equal to their tension, some 10²¹ kg per meter of length. If a cosmic string intersects another, they break and form a slew of magnetic monopoles, gravitational waves, and closed loop cosmic strings. These closed loops then continue to decay gravitationally, over astronomical timescales.

It has been speculated that the cosmic occurrence of relic cosmic strings from the Big Bang are around one per cubic Gigalight-year (that is, a cube of space with each edge measuring one billion light-years). This implies that the Tau Ceti star system is unique not only in our galaxy for having monopolium, but perhaps across the entire Local Group of our galaxies (e.g., the Milky Way, Andromeda, Triangulum).

Cosmic strings are very hard to locate at a distance, since their tension and mass density cancel out gravitationally (tension is also negative pressure, a component to be calculated in the stress-energy tensor of General Relativity), they exert no gravitational forces on nearby objects despite their immense mass. However, light passing near a cosmic string will encounter a "conical deficit": the area around a cosmic string is less than 360° and will bend light, creating a double image of objects behind a cosmic string.

While magnetic monopoles exist (zero-dimensional topological defects), their unknown nature makes speculation about cosmic strings all that more difficult, especially considering no cosmic strings have yet to have been found.

White Hole Ejecta

Although spacetime is not subject to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, spacetime exhibits a negative gravitational pressure at the Planck scale. The geometry of spacetime is described in General Relativity with metrics. So, unlike every other gravitational effect, which is a consequence of some distribution of stress-energy, this repulsive effect is a product of the quantum mechanical nature of the geometry itself.

In nature, this quantum pressure is responsible for a repulsive gravitational effect that stops the inward collapse of matter into singularities. While black holes still form with their event horizons, the interior structure of black holes diverge from the predictions of General Relativity where the inner Cauchy horizon forms, in rotating and charged black holes. Instead of a pathological region with timelike singularities, this quantum metric pressure prevents the collapse of black holes beneath an inner horizon. Note: the inner Cauchy horizon of some astrophysical black holes are macroscopic (kilometers in radius), so this quantum metric pressure becomes a macroscopic manifestation of Planck scale physics.

So, every black hole eventually reaches a density where this quantum metric pressure comes to dominate over the classical attractive gravitational force, producing a quantum bounce, where the once black hole becomes a white hole: a region of spacetime where nothing can enter. In the process of spewing out everything that was once inside the black hole, magnetic monopoles might emerge since the conditions of an exploding white hole are not too dissimilar from the Big Bang. It is possible there are still primordial black holes from the Big Bang, with perhaps the mass of Mount Everest, just now encountering their quantum bounce and becoming a white hole.

However we have the opposite problem when compared to cosmic strings: while cosmic strings (if they exist at all) are far too rare to be responsible for the monopoles in the Tau Ceti system, white holes should have been detected in quite a large quantity across astronomical distances back in the 20^th century. Yet, not a single white hole has been found and identified thus far. Either primordial white holes are all too small to be detected from beyond a distance of 3,000 light-years (<10¹⁵ kg each), or white holes are responsible for a poorly understood phenomenon already observed (e.g., gamma ray bursts).